Отрывок, характеризующий Ас-Салам
Мир, благополучие Словарь русских синонимов. салам нареч, кол во синонимов: 3 привет (63) … Словарь синонимов
Нареч, кол во синонимов: 3 здравствуйте (63) привет (63) салам (3) Словарь синонимов ASIS … Словарь синонимов
— (Salam) Абдус (родился в 1926), пакистанский физик теоретик, один из авторов объединенной теории электромагнитного и слабого взаимодействий. Организовал и длительное время возглавлял Международный центр теоретической физики в Триесте. Труды по… … Современная энциклопедия
— (р. 1926) пакистанский физик теоретик, иностранный член РАН (1991; иностранный член АН СССР с 1971). Труды по квантовой теории поля и элементарных частиц, теории гравитации. Один из авторов объединенной теории электромагнитного и слабого… … Большой Энциклопедический словарь
Салам (Salam) Абдус (р. 29.1.1926, Джханг), пакистанский физик. Окончил Кембриджский университет (1951). В 1951‒54 профессор колледжа в Лахоре, в 1954‒56 лектор Кембриджского университета, с 1957 профессор Лондонского университета. С 1964… … Большая советская энциклопедия
— (Salam) Абдус (1926 96), пакистанский физик, предложивший теорию, объединяющую ЭЛЕКТРОМАГНИТНЫЕ силы и СЛАБОЕ ЯДЕРНОЕ ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЕ внутри ЯДРА АТОМА (см. ФУНДАМЕНТАЛЬНЫЕ СИЛЫ). Независимо от Салама над этой теорией работал американский физик… … Научно-технический энциклопедический словарь
Салам, Абдус
— САЛАМ (Salam) Абдус (родился в 1926), пакистанский физик–теоретик, один из авторов объединенной теории электромагнитного и слабого взаимодействий. Организовал и длительное время возглавлял Международный центр теоретической физики в Триесте. Труды … Иллюстрированный энциклопедический словарь
Файл:Salam Nobel.jpg Абдус Салам на церемонии вручения Нобелевской премии вместе с королём Швеции Абдус Салам (англ. Abdus Salam; 29 января 1926, Джанг, Пакистан 21 ноября 1996, Оксфорд) пакистанский физик теоретик, лауреат Нобелевской премии по… … Википедия
Абдус Салам англ. Abdus Salam, урду عبد السلام … Википедия
Салам, салям (араб. سَلاَمٌ) арабское слово означающее «мир», «безопасность», «благополучие». Салам Салам, Ассаламу алейкум исламское приветствие Ас Салам мусульманская духовно просветительская газета, издающаяся в… … Википедия
Книги
- , Юлдуз Халиуллин. Книга представляет собой первый на русском языке научно-популярный очерк о жизни и творчестве выдающегося мусульманского ученого, лауреата Нобелевской премии Абдус Салама. Один из создателей…
- Лауреат Нобелевской премии Абдус Салам , Юлдуз Халиуллин. Книга представляет собой первый на русском языке научно-популярный очерк о жизни и творчестве выдающегося мусульманского ученого, лауреата Нобелевской премии Абдус Салама (1926-1996). Один из…
Youth and Education
As Miriam Lewis wrote in a biography submitted to the Nobel Foundation, «Abdus Salam was born in Jhang, a small town in what is now Pakistan. His father was an official in the Department of Education in a poor farming district. His family has a long tradition of piety and learning.»
At the age of 14, he secured the highest marks ever recorded for the Matriculation Examination at the University of the Punjab. He won a scholarship to Government College, University of the Punjab, in Lahore. As a fourth-year student, he published his work on Srinivasa Ramanujan.. He received his MA degree from Government College in 1946.
Though his prime subject of interest was Mathematics, most ambitious young men of India at his time entered Indian Civil Service (ICS) and Salam was expected to do the same. However, as the World War II was taking place at that time, the ICS froze their hiring process for that period, and Salam was allowed to go abroad. That same year, he went abroad on a scholarship, which took him to St. John’s College, Cambridge University, where he took a BA (Honors) degree with a double First in Mathematics and Physics in 1949.
In 1950, he received the Smith’s Prize from Cambridge University for the most outstanding pre-doctoral contribution to Physics. Salam was offered a fellowship at Trinity College, but rejected the invite only because his current college, Saint John’s, pleased him aesthetically, more than did Trinity College. Salam obtained a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics at Cambridge. His doctoral thesis contained fundamental work in Quantum Electrodynamics. By the time it was published in 1951, it had already gained him an international reputation. He then took a course in advanced physics, following the advice of cosmologist Fred Hoyle, who told him, “Otherwise, you will never be able to look an experimental physicist in the eye.”
Rather than just taking one course in physics, Salam became a research student in experimental physics at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University. But Salam was not one for the laboratory – as Nigel Calder from “A Man of Sciences – Abdus Salam” wrote in his article, “He would get bizarre results in his experiments and explain them by inventing a new theory.” Instead, his strengths lay in mathematics. Thus, his first major research done at Cambridge involved finding mathematical proof for whether or not an electron can have infinite electric charge, something that physicists Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman, and Freeman Dyson had not provided in their reasoning.
Salam was a devout Muslim, and it was his belief that beauty is finding “new, subtle, yet simplifying patterns in the natural world,” as Calder stated. In his active period (starting late 1940s) Salam greatly helped physicists make theories simpler and finer – during this time, physicists proposed new theories to explain matter.
The Electroweak Force
The Initial Problem
At a physics conference in Seattle in 1956, Salam became very excited listening to Chen-Ning Yang describe parity violation – Yang and his colleague Tsung-Dao Lee would be awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
Yang described how parity, a property physicists believed was always conserved – like energy, momentum, and electric charge – need not be conserved in weak nuclear interactions, such as beta decay.
The implication was that Nature could tell the difference between left and right. Why, Salam wondered, was left-right symmetry violated in weak interactions, but conserved in electromagnetic interactions?
He convinced himself, correctly, that the answer lay in a gauge theory – the first of which had been Maxwell’s formulation of electrodynamics.
Predicting the W and Z Bosons
Salam worked on the problem with his PhD student Ronald Shaw and, in 196l-62, Steven Weinberg spent a year with Salam at Imperial College.
The scientists produced a theory saying that while the electromagnetic force was transmitted by massless photons, there must exist particles with mass involved in a unified force – the electroweak force. They theorized the existence of W and Z bosons.
W and Z bosons, they said, are the particles with mass that take part in beta decay of an atomic nucleus.
A neutron undergoes beta decay. The neutron can be free or within a nucleus. The decay produces a proton, a high energy electron, and an electron antineutrino.
The net outcome of beta decay is that a neutron turns into a beta particle (a high energy electron), a proton, and an electron antineutrino.
The W boson is an intermediate particle in beta decay. The neutron first decays into a W boson. In the case of beta decay, the W boson is negatively charged, written W–. It hangs around for an incredibly short amount of time: 3 × 10-25 seconds, before decaying into a proton, beta particle, and antineutrino.
Z bosons carry no electric charge, but carry momentum. They are observed in very high energy situations.
The fact that the force carriers of the electroweak force – the W and Z bosons – have mass while photons have no mass was a major problem, because in an SU(2) gauge theory (particle physics jargon for the gauge framework Salam and others were working within) bosons must have no mass.
Peter Higgs solved the problem of bosons with masses in 1964 with the Higgs mechanism, predicting the Higgs boson. (Higgs was awarded the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work.)
W and Z Bosons are Discovered
Z boson interactions, called weak neutral currents, because Z bosons carry no charge, were observed at CERN in 1973.
W bosons were observed in 1983.
Taken together, the SU(2) gauge theory of the weak interaction, plus the electromagnetic interaction, plus the Higgs mechanism produces the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model, finalized in 1968. The model successfully unified the electromagnetic and weak forces into the electroweak force.
Scientific Career
Salam wanted to spread interest in the sciences in developing nations. To start off, in 1951, he returned to his nation, Pakistan, which had just then been split from India after the India’s independence from the British. His focus was to teach Mathematics at the Government College, Lahore. In 1952, he became the Head of the Mathematics Department of the University of the Punjab. He had wanted to found a school of research, but soon found that this was impossible due to the fact that the academic environment in Pakistan at the time was scathed; scientists as well as bright students failed to even take science and scientific development into serious consideration.
Frustrated by this, in 1954, Abdus Salam left Pakistan for a lecturership at Cambridge rather than keep the professorship in Pakistan, where he felt, in the words of Calder, “intellectually lonely.” However, he continued to visit Pakistan from time to time as an adviser on science policy to the Government of Pakistan. His work for Pakistan was extensive and prominent. In the period of 1961 to 1974, he was a member of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Scientific Commission of Pakistan, Founder Chairman of Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission, and Chief Scientific Adviser to the President of Pakistan.
In 1956 he was invited to take the Chair at Imperial College, London, where he and Paul Matthews created a lively Theoretical Physics group. He remained a Professor at Imperial until his retirement. In 1964, he founded the International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste in the northeast of Italy. In 1959, he became the youngest Fellow of the Royal Society (at that time) at the age of 33.
Salam had a prolific research career in theoretical elementary particle physics. For more than forty years, he either pioneered or was associated with all the important developments in this field. He also served on a number of United Nations committees concerning science and technology in developing countries.
Abdus Salam died at age 70 in Oxford in 1996, after a long illness. He was buried (without any official protocol) in Rabwah, Pakistan.
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А́бдус Сала́м (англ. Abdus Salam; 29 января , Джанг, Британская Индия (в настоящее время Пакистан) — 21 ноября , Оксфорд, Великобритания) — пакистанский физик-теоретик, лауреат Нобелевской премии по физике за 1979 год (совместно с Шелдоном Глэшоу и Стивеном Вайнбергом).
Краткая биография
В 1946 году окончил Правительственный колледж Пенджабского университета в Лахоре, поступил в Кембриджский университет в Англии. В 1949 году защитил магистерскую диссертацию. В защитил докторскую диссертацию по квантовой электродинамике. В 1951 году Салам стал профессором математики Пакистанского Правительственного колледжа. В 1954 году вернулся в Кембридж на должность лектора по математике, а в 1957 году стал профессором кафедры теоретической физики Имперского колледжа в Лондоне. С 1961 года был советником по науке президента Пакистана. C по 1993 годы был директором Международного центра теоретической физики в Триесте (Италия), к созданию которого приложил большие усилия. С по 1975 годы он был членом, а в —1972 годах — председателем Консультативного комитета ООН по науке и технике. С середины 1950-х годов Салам работал над единой теорией фундаментальных взаимодействий, пытаясь объединить электромагнетизм с сильными и слабыми взаимодействиями. Используя принцип калибровочной инвариантности, предложенный Ш. Глэшоу, он в 1968 году (независимо от С. Вайнберга) построил теорию, объединяющую слабые и электромагнитные взаимодействия в единое электрослабое взаимодействие, и предсказал, что переносчиками слабого взаимодействия являются (на то время ещё не открытые) заряженные частицы W+, W− и нейтральная частица Z (открыты в ). В «за вклад в построение объединённой теории слабых и электромагнитных взаимодействий между элементарными частицами, в том числе за предсказание слабых нейтральных токов» совместно с С. Вайнбергом и Ш. Глэшоу Салам был удостоен Нобелевской премии по физике. Кроме Нобелевской премии, Салам был удостоен премии «Атом для мира» (1968), награжден медалью Максвелла Лондонского физического общества (1961), медалью Хьюза (1964), Королевской медалью Лондонского королевского общества (), золотой медалью Ломоносова АН СССР () и многих других наград. Был членом академий наук многих стран, в том числе иностранным членом Академии наук СССР.
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Religion
Abdus Salam was a devout member of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. He saw his religion as integral to his scientific work. He once wrote: «The Holy Quran enjoins us to reflect on the verities of Allah’s created laws of nature; however, that our generation has been privileged to glimpse a part of His design is a bounty and a grace for which I render thanks with a humble heart.»
During his acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize in Physics, Salam quoted the following verses from the Qur’an:
- «Thou seest not, in the creation of the All-merciful any imperfection, Return thy gaze, seest thou any fissure. Then Return thy gaze, again and again. Thy gaze, Comes back to thee dazzled, aweary.»
He then proceeded to say:
- «This, in effect, is the faith of all physicists; the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement for our gaze.»
Биография
В 1946 году окончил Правительственный колледж Пенджабского университета в Лахоре и поступил в Кембриджский университет в Англии. В 1949 году получил диплом магистра. В 1952 году защитил докторскую диссертацию по квантовой электродинамике.
В 1951 году стал профессором математики Пакистанского правительственного колледжа. В 1954 году вернулся в Кембридж на должность лектора по математике. В 1957 году становится профессором кафедры теоретической физики Имперского колледжа в Лондоне.
В 1961 году становится советником по науке президента Пакистана. С по 1993 годы занимал должность директора Международного центра теоретической физики в Триесте (Италия), в создании которого принимал участие.
В 1964—1975 годы являлся членом, а в 1971—1972 — председателем Консультативного комитета ООН по науке и технике.
В 1960-х годах руководил постройкой Пакистанского ядерного реактора. Реактор был запущен в 1965 году и вышел на полную мощность в 1966 году. На посту главного научного советника правительства Пакистана, в 1972—1974 годах Абдус Салам руководил программой создания пакистанского ядерного оружия.
В 1974 году Абдус Салам эмигрировал из Пакистана в связи с тем, что религиозное течение Ахмадие, к которому он принадлежал, было объявлено неисламским, а ахмадитам было запрещено законом называться мусульманами.
В 1992 году подписал «Предупреждение человечеству».
Абдус Салам умер в Оксфорде, похоронен в Пакистане на кладбище Бахишти Макбара. На его надгробии было написано: «первый мусульманский нобелевский лауреат доктор Абдус Салам». В результате вандализма часть надписи была уничтожена.
Scientific Achievements
Salam’s best known contributions to science include:
- two-component neutrino theory and the prediction of the inevitable parity violation in weak interactions
- gauge unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions-the unified force is known as the “electroweak” force, named by Salam
- predicted existence of weak neutral currents and W particles and Z particles before their experimental discovery
- symmetry properties of elementary particles and unity symmetry
- renormalization of meson theories
- gravity theory and its role in particle physics including two tensor theory of gravity and strong interaction physics
- supersymmetry theory including formulation of superspace and formalism of superfields
In 1998, Pakistan issued a stamp in honor of Salam.
Other Work
During the early 1960s, Salam played significant roles in establishing the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and Pakistan’s Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO).
Salam was passionate about promoting science in developing countries. He recalled there had once been a golden age of Islamic science, when for hundreds of years Islamic scientists had led the world. He urged Muslims to regain the spirit of free enquiry that existed in those times.
Salam was the founder of the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP).
He donated all the money he received from his Nobel Prize to setting up a fund in Pakistan to promote educational opportunities.
Personal Life
In 1949, age 23, Salam married his 22-year-old cousin Amtul Hafeez Hussain. The couple had three daughters and a son. According to Islamic law, a man may have more than one wife. In November 1967, Salam married the biophysicist Louise Johnson, with whom he had a son and a daughter.
In 1974, Salam was saddened when Pakistan’s government passed a law declaring Ahmadis to be non-Muslims. In 1980, after he received the Nobel Prize, he was invited as an honored guest to the Quaid-e-Azam University in Pakistan’s capital city, Islamabad. The ceremony was cancelled because extremists threatened to break Salam’s legs if he turned up at the university.
In the mid-1980s, Salam began suffering from a degenerative neurological disorder. Eventually he was confined to a wheelchair. He retired from his chair at Imperial College in 1994, age 68.
Abdus Salam died peacefully, age 70, at home in Oxford on November 21, 1996. He was buried four days later in the Ahmadi city of Rabwah, Pakistan.
He was survived by his children and his wives.
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Please use the following MLA compliant citation:
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Further Reading
F. J. Dyson
Abdus Salam, 1926–1996
Biographical Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol 143, No. 2, June 1999
T. W. B. Kibble
Salam, Muhammad Abdus 1926-1996
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 07 January 2016
https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/64072
Acknowledgements
Image of Salam courtesy of the Nationaal Archief, the Dutch National Archives, and Spaarnestad Photo.
Примечания
- Совместно с Шелдоном Глэшоу и Стивеном Вайнбергом.
- ↑ Abdus Salam // Encyclopædia Britannica (англ.)
- ↑ Abdus Salam // Энциклопедия Брокгауз (нем.)
- Математическая генеалогия (англ.)
- Salam; Muhammad Abdus (1926—1996) (англ.)
- Профиль Абдуса Салама на официальном сайте РАН
- Abdus Salam Архивная копия от 1 июля 2018 на Wayback Machine (англ.)
- APS Member History
- ICTP (англ.). Дата обращения: 12 марта 2011. Архивировано 15 февраля 2012 года.
- Dombey, Norman Salam’s Part in the Pakistan’s atomic bomb projects (англ.) (google docs). Brighton BN1 9QH: Physics and Astronomy Department of the University of Sussex (10 декабря 2011). Дата обращения: 30 октября 2012. Архивировано 12 ноября 2012 года.
- Малала: героиня мира и громоотвод для сограждан? Дата обращения: 17 мая 2015. Архивировано 3 мая 2015 года.
- World Scientists’ Warning To Humanity (англ.). Дата обращения: 16 мая 2019. Архивировано 30 октября 2020 года.
- PAKISTAN: Is Dr. Abdus Salam — a Nobel Laureate or persona non grata? (англ.). Asian Human Rights Commission. Дата обращения: 16 мая 2019. Архивировано 25 марта 2019 года.
